Definition and Examples of New Englishes

The term New Englishes refers to regional and national varieties of the English language used in places where it is not the mother tongue of the majority of the population. The phrase is also known as  new varieties of English, non-native varieties of English, and non-native institutionalized varieties of English. New Englishes have certain formal properties—lexical, phonological, and  grammatical—that differ from those of British or American standard English. Examples of New Englishes include Nigerian English, Singapore English, and Indian English. Examples and Observations Most adaptation in a New English relates to vocabulary, in the form of new words (borrowings—from several hundred language sources, in such areas as Nigeria), word-formations, word-meanings, collocations, and idiomatic phrases. There are many cultural domains likely to motivate new words, as speakers find themselves adapting the language to meet fresh communicative needs. – David Crystal, English as a Global Language, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2003 The pioneer in the study of New Englishes has been, without doubt, Braj B. Kachru, who with his 1983 book The Indianization of English initiated a tradition of describing non-native varieties of English. South Asian English remains a well-documented institutionalized second-language variety, yet the cases of Africa and South East Asia are by now also relatively well described. – Sandra Mollin, Euro-English: Assessing Variety Status. Gunter Narr Verlag, 2006 Characteristics of New English A term that has gained popularity is New English, which Platt, Weber and Ho (1984) use to designate an English variety with the following characteristics: (a) It has developed through the education system (possibly even as a medium of education at a certain level), rather than as a first language of the home.(b) It has developed in an area where a native variety of English was not spoken by a majority of the population.(c) It is used for a range of functions (for example, letter-writing, government communications, literature, as a lingua franca within a country and in formal contexts).(d) It has become nativised, by developing a subset of rules which mark it as different from American or British English. Excluded from their designation New English are the Newer Englishes of the British Isles (i.e. Scots and Celtic-influenced varieties like Hiberno-English); immigrant English; foreign English; pidgin and creole Englishes. – Rajend Mesthrie, English in Language Shift: The History, Structure, and Sociolinguistics of South African Indian English. Cambridge University Press, 1992 A Controversial Term The varieties of English spoken in outer circle countries have been called New Englishes, but the term is controversial. Singh (1998) and Mufwene (2000) argue that it is meaningless, in so far as no linguistic characteristic is common to all and only New Englishes and all varieties are recreated by children from a mixed pool of features, so all are new in every generation. These points are certainly true, and it is important to avoid suggesting that the new (mainly non-native) varieties are inferior to the old (mainly native) ones. . . . Nevertheless, the Englishes of India, Nigeria, and Singapore and many other outer-circle countries do share a number of superficial linguistic characteristics which, taken together, make it convenient to describe them as a group separately from America, British, Australian, New Zealand, etc. varieties. – Gunnel Melchers and Philip Shaw, World Englishes: An Introduction. Arnold, 2003 Old Englishes, New Englishes, and English as a Foreign Language We can view the spread of English in terms of the old Englishes, the new Englishes and English as a foreign language variety, representing the types of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages. . . . The old varieties of English, for example, might be traditionally described as British, American, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand, etc. The new Englishes on the other hand have two major features, in that English is only one of two or more codes in the linguistic repertoire and that it has acquired an important status in the language of such multilingual nations. Also in functional terms the new Englishes have extended their functional range in a variety of social, educational, administrative, and literary domains. Moreover they have acquired great depth in terms of users at different levels of society. India, Nigeria and Singapore would be examples of countries with new Englishes. The third variety of English , that of English as a foreign language, has often been characterised by the fact that unlike the countries where we find the new Englishes these countries do not necessarily have a history of colonisation by the users of the old Englishes but use English as a necessary international language. Japan, Russia, China, Indonesia, Thailand, etc. would fall into this category. – Joseph Foley, Introduction to New Englishes: The Case of Singapore. Singapore University Press, 1988

The Rationale For The Choice Of Title Essay - 1667 Words

1.0 Title and the Rationale for the Choice of Title The title of this training program is â€Å"Say No to Sexual Harassment†. Sexual harassment means undesirable or unwelcome sexual conduct which makes people feel annoyed, embarrassed or scared (University of Minnesota 2015). Normally, female employees are most likely to be the pity victims of sexual harassment. However, male employees can be the victims too. Appendix 5 shows the snapshot of statistics about sexual harassment in the workplace. For most female today, it is important to get a job in order to be successful and independent women. It is a transformation from past decades. The amount of female employees in the workplace is getting more and more. In Malaysia, female employees consist of 38.60 % of total labor force in 2013. By comparing to 1990, involvement of women in the workplace has increased 1.1% (Trading Economics 2015). Appendix 6 shows the percentages of female workforce in the workplace in Malaysia in different years. Since involvement of women in the workplace is getting more and more, we believe that sexual harassment against female employees will increase. The aim of this training program is to help trainees understand sexual harassment more in the workplace. Sexual harassment is part of the sex discrimination (Australian Human Rights Commission 2015). Sexual harassment in the workplace becomes a common issue in this world. Therefore, sexual harassment training must give to allShow MoreRelated663352 inst Essay1515 Words   |  7 Pagesand ascertain the model of culture that is most appropriate for the selected international competitor. Provide a rationale for your response.  Ã‚   2. Recommend the type of economic system that best relates to each of the researched international competitors. 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Core and periphery of Brazil Free Essays

string(79) " areas and child labor is a concern, as is child prostitution in major cities\." With reference to your selected region; locate and account for the emergence of a core, of relative wealth and a periphery of relative poverty. Discuss the relationship between the core and periphery, and note why the core is over-heating. What strategies have been initiated to tackle these regional inequalities? Brazil is the largest of the Latin American countries, located in the South American continent. We will write a custom essay sample on Core and periphery of Brazil or any similar topic only for you Order Now Brazil’s unequal development has given rise to two areas of spatial inequality. These are called the Core and the Periphery. The core is a relatively wealthy area, and is seen as the industrial hub of economics and industry. The Periphery however is less economically developed, and is characterised by a declining or stagnant economy. This prominent division has been caused by many reasons. The Core’s success has resulted in it overheating, and outward migration has resulted in the periphery’s problems getting worse. Government Strategies were then designed to improve the spread of development across Brazil. John Friedmann’s model, shown above, shows us how Brazil has developed and its inequalities. The Core is in the South East of Brazil and is an area of industry, with high levels of technology, capital and investment. Unlike the North the South is fortunate to have a warm, temperate climate with a distinct cooler season along the coast. Development is easier in these Southern conditions, compared to the difficult climates of areas such as Sertio, in the North, where there are frequent droughts. Also the Core’s location is beneficial too, being near the coast; large ports are possible and ports such as Santos in Sio Paulo are very important for importing and exporting for Brazil. These ports are built close to mineral resources and industry, for products to be exported. The core is home to huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine. These are mainly found in Minas Gerais, and rich minerals such as these are very beneficial to an area and they bring great revenue. Sio Paulo, Belo Horizonte and Rio de Janeiro are three cities that make up Brazil’s industrial triangle, which is the centre of its industry. Sio Paulo is home to approximately one-third of the Brazilian GDP, with its economy based on machinery and automobile industry. Rio de Janeiro had the second largest economy after Sio Paulo and is home to the country’s largest bank – Banco de Brazil. Belo Horizonte has become an international reference in information technology and Biotechnology. The Core has a good infrastructure, with efficient roads and railways that attract development. There is a large market for consumer goods and services, with a thriving work force, created by the large population. The South East of Brazil was the centre of trade in the country’s colonial history too. Brazil was a Portuguese colony for over 300 years and the Portuguese exploited the land and exported minerals to Europe. The Southeast of the country was their centre of trade, so ports began to grow to export raw materials e. g. Santos and Rio de Janeiro. This was the start of the core’s advanced development that left the peripheral areas behind in development. Foreign investment has accelerated the Core’s development, with Germany as an example. Germany has invested $10 billion in Brazil, as 15% of its total foreign investment. There are now 1,024 German companies present in Brazil. Now German executives are being replaced by Brazilians to take over and run the companies. This will benefit the country even further, as its people become wealthier. As well as Germany, the united States have invested too, and Sio Paulo is considered to headquarter more American Companies than any other city outside of the U. S. The Car Industry has been a catalyst for development. With Ford, General Motors and VW in Brazil, hundreds of component suppliers have been attracted. Near to VW’s plant for bus and trucks, is Volta Redonda, Brazil’s main steel industry. This thrives from the car industry in Brazil and brings 1800 more jobs and $250 million of investment to Brazil. The Periphery is quiet different, located in the Centre West of Brazil. The Peripheral areas often suffer from declining industries, creating a negative image, which is unfavourable to new development in relation to the core. Low productivity and reduced demand for minerals has left the periphery less favourable in comparison with the core. Young and ambitious workers often leave the periphery to move the core, where there are greater job opportunities. This adds to the problems that the periphery faces, with a reduced work force and an aging population. The North has never been prosperous and has always been thinly populated. The development of Brazil’s peripheral region has been stunted by its many problems. Environmentally, the peripheral areas in the North- East suffer epic droughts. This area is struck by mild droughts every 3years and a severe one every 12. Any remaining water is unsafe to drink and cholera strikes in epidemics. The temperatures through the dry season can reach 42iC and the temperatures and dry conditions make development very difficult and slow. The land available for growing crops is scarce and the soil is generally poor, thus meaning farmers that are dependant on one crop can’t grow it, are struggle for food for their livestock. The people often have no or little education and can only get jobs in unskilled sectors and industry is mainly in agriculture. Most people are dependant on cottage industries and specific crops. The Northeast is the poorest region of Brazil, with the worst HDI rates of the country, mainly in the rural areas, which suffer from long periods without rain. This is somewhat ironic since the Northeast, during Brazil’s colonial era when sugar production was higher, was the most prosperous region in all of South America. Health care is very bad, malnutrition is common in people living in these areas and child labor is a concern, as is child prostitution in major cities. You read "Core and periphery of Brazil" in category "Papers" Prostitution in the major cities has become an enormous problem, caused largely by the low Brazilian minimum wage as well as sexual tourism. In contrast to the situation occurring in the other Brazilian regions where social problems are worse in bigger cities, social problems in the Northeast regions are worse in the rural and small communities of the interior, lessening in bigger cities near the coast. With a lack of mineral resources and a poor infrastructure the Northeast of Brazil’s development was very slow, especially with little energy resource to aid it. The quality of life in the Peripheral areas was low and the higher wages in the core appear much more favourable. The Core has its Problems too, overcrowding of people and competition for business, resulted in the core overheating. People move to the Southeast to improve their quality of life. However so many people now live and work in the big cities of the core that this begins to create its own problems. Since not enough housing can be provided for all these people or indeed afforded, people make their homes on unreclaimed public land. This resulted in a high occurrence of Shanty Towns or Favelas. These areas of irregular and poor quality housing are often crowded onto hillsides. Landslides in such areas, caused primarily by heavy rainfall but worsened by deforestation, are frequent. In recent decades, favelas have been troubled by drug-related crime and gang warfare. There are rumors that common social codes in favelas forbid residents from engaging in criminal activity while inside their own favela. Favelas are often considered a disgrace and an eyesore for local people within Brazil. The overcrowding caused by in-migration in the cities results in congestion and air pollution. This is worsened by the industrial pollution from manufacturing companies and from petrochemicals. Competition from other companies has resulted in closures of existing ones, meaning jobs are lost. Also wage rate were seen to be lower elsewhere so some businesses have chosen to move, to pay lower rates. The port of Santos had noticeably higher holding charges than other major ports; commerce was lost here as companies left. Under Unemployment is an issue in Brazil, this is where people hold jobs that don’t contribute to the country’s productivity. These are jobs in the informal sector such as, camelos, street vendors and prostitution. The minimum Monthly wage is R$200, although about 30million people in Brazil are not even making that much. The Brazilian government designed strategies to spread development across Brazil, with the Amazon region and the Northeast as the main problem areas. To begin the alterations a nationwide transport network was built, this included the Amazonian Highway. This re-encouraged mining and other economic activities to develop in the Amazon region. Two main approaches were used to tackle regional differences. These were the top-down and the bottom-up approaches. The top down approach is central around the government’s decisions and doesn’t really involve the people. Governments often concentrate their development resources in Growth poles, such as Brasilia and Recife, with the hope that economic growth will take place and spread to surrounding areas. Also growth corridors are often designated, that are designed to encourage industrial investment. These are often positioned along major roads that connect major urban areas and provide good access. In the Northeast there has now been heavy investment from new industries using power from the Sao Francisco River and the capital city was moved from Rio de Janeiro to a new city Brasilia. These are Top-down approaches, where government decisions try to overcome the disparity between the rich and the poor. Bottom-up approaches are centered on the people, helping them to help themselves. Local communities are consulted about the best ways to improve their quality of life, and they together plan the best methods. The government offered incentives to encourage businesses like Grendene to move away from the core. In this case the shoe company Grendene, worth $100billion, moved to the North East. The Capital of Brazil used to be Rio de Janeiro but in 1960 the Brazilian government decided to build a new capital inland, Brasilia, in an effort to develop the interior of Brazil. Brasilia acted like a magnet and changed migration patterns, and encouraged economic development in different areas. Many specific strategies were also implemented. Two regional development agencies were set up in 1959 called SUDENE and SUDAM, and they were responsible for managing the economic and social development of the country. SUDENE in the Northeast and SUDAM in the North; organized programmes such as; road building, the installation of power stations, building schools and developing ports. The work of SUDENE linked with the Northeastern pact of 1996 many improvements were made. The infrastructure in terms of irrigation, energy supply, transport and communications were improved. Canals were formed to link up rivers, dams were built and the drinking water was improved. Also efforts were made to modernise agriculture, to promote subsistence farming and cottage industry, to avoid the worst effects of droughts. Beer brewing plants were moved from Rio de Janeiro to Ceari, the Antarctica and Kaiser breweries created new jobs and revenue. This followed other industries moving to the northeast to lower labour costs and tax breaks. Also the state Maranhao has begun to attract companies from Taiwan, with and expected benefit of $1 billion. This move is to find cheaper labour and the abundance of raw materials in the area. Brazil now has a good tourism industry set up, with visitors coming to the beautiful locations along the north east coasts especially. Although progress has certainly been made, the regional programmes have not lived up to their entire expectations. Sustainable growth wasn’t always considered and tax incentives made quick short term solutions. Further development in the Northern areas of Brazil has meant huge areas of forest land have been cleared under the grounds of land improvement, but deforestation is posing a larger threat. Global climate change has resulted in stricter rules, which could hinder their progress. The increasing debt of the country has meant that there is less and less capital available for investment. The gap between the core and the peripheral regions in Brazil has certain closed a little but there is certainly more to be done. How to cite Core and periphery of Brazil, Papers

Tourism Management Marina Bay and Marina Barrage

Question: Discuss about the Tourism Management for Marina Bay and Marina Barrage. Answer: Introduction The Marina Bay Garden is a nature park located on a reclaimed land in central Singapore while Marina Barrage is a reservoir or a dam located at the confluence of five rivers between east and south of Marina (Kaplan, 2016). In the following context, I will describe the experience I gained when on my trip to the two tourism attractions. Besides, I will discuss the activities carried on in these two areas as well as how they are managed. Finally, I will explore the two problems which are facing the two sites and how the managers can overcome them. Explanation and Issues Starting with the Marina Bay Garden, it is a government creation aimed to improve the quality of flora and fauna in the city (Yap, 2013) it was fully completed in 2012.To sustain the Garden, it is supported by the three Gardens; Bay East, Bay South AND Bay Central Gardens making it occupy approximately 101 hectares. The Bay provides Singaporeans an urban recreational space in Singapore City. The largest issue facing the Garden is high expenditure to maintain its beauty. The government spends approximately $53 million annually as operating cost. The cost is foregone due to structural designs and concepts as well as maintaining the large-scale arts constructed, for example, the Hotel Towers at Sky Park in Marina Bay Sands. On the other hand, Marina Barrage which is a barrier was completed in 2008, is located across the marina channel providing a water catchment area (Koh, Lim, 2015). The dam is adjacent to the Marina Bay providing it with fresh water. It is quite large enough, approximately 350 meters long and a total of 240 hectares of the surface area. The issues facing the Barrage involve cleaning up the waters to prevent pollution. Since many people visit the place, paper, plastic, oil and organic dumping may be common. The government relocated over 4000 squatters living close to the waters which led to high expenditure as well as disruption of peoples normal lifestyles. Commitment of Key Stakeholders Marina Bay Garden The Garden is managed by the Singapore government which spent huge amounts of funds to set it up and make it operational. The government constructed conservatories comprising of the flower dome and the cloud forest. The flower dome consists of 1.2 hectares of a glasshouse, and the cloud forest is about 0.8 hectares, the two maintain a serene environment within the area. Moreover, the Garden is also made attractive by use of super tree groves which are structures resembling trees but are used for shading and planting new seedlings (Tiatco, 2015) Since the government spent many funds towards the Garden, it benefits from visitors, both local and international who tour Singapore to visit the Bay. The government has ensured that tourists are attracted by the construction of the Marina Bay Sands Sky Park to have a comfortable view of Singapore City, Art Science Museum and the Singapore Flyer (Hakam, Wee, Yang, 2015).There is also a Childrens Garden for the kids. The leisure activities available include Formula 1 car racing, gaming, and gambling in the Marina Bay Sands Casino and the sports activities done on the Golf Course which is open to the public. The government is also committed to using the Garden commercially by providing horticulture and flower markets for export which in turn earns it revenue. Marina Barrage The dam is owned by the Singapore government which spent about 226 million SGD to construct it. The dam provides fresh water catchment area, prevention of floods by forming a tidal barrier to excess sea water (Irvine, Chua, Eikass, 2014). The government has permitted leisure and tourism activities by creating a new lifestyle attraction. This involves boating and kayaking. By setting up the dam, these activities are ever available since they are never affected by tides or changes of the water level. On the Marina channel, people enjoy flying kites, football, playing card games and moving out for picnics. These features enable the Barrage to be a tourist attraction site. Not only does the Barrage provide recreational activities, but it also serves to build a sustainable environment. For example, it uses renewable solar energy to provide lighting all over the place at night. That makes it win environmental awards such as the American Academy of Environmental Engineers (AAEE) where it won the top position in 2009 (Perlinger, Paterson, Mayer, Griffis, Holles, 2013) Approaches and Alternatives to the Management Issues Marina Bay Garden Since the greatest challenge is minimizing operating cost, the Singapore government has decided to subsidize half of the expenses, and the remaining costs will be raised through commercial renting, car park charges and admission fees. However, a minister quoted that the Garden does not ask for entrance fee from the visitors. Since the government is experiencing substantial costs, it should introduce a small and affordable price for the visitors to raise revenue. This will be an alternative. (Flannery Smith, 2015) Say that the Garden receives about 11.8 million visitors each year. If they contribute an entrance fee, they will assist the government considerably. The other possible alternative could be diversification of commercial activities. The government should put more efforts on the growth of flowers and the horticultural sector to double the sales. This can be done through global advertising through suitable media such as the internet, worldwide TV channels such as the BBC and CNN. Promoting the business will boost its sales rising revenue. The restaurants can be better made to be world-class providing comfortable accommodation and all kinds of meals for the tourists visiting the area, for example, having sections to provide own Chinese, African, and European foods. Marina Barrage The Singapore government relocated residents to avoid water pollution. The exercise was a good plan to eliminate water pollution challenge. However, the problem is still persistent in that the visitors, although not all, are dumping wastes on the land and in the water. An alternative to solve this issue would be providing enough litter bins for visitors to drop the litter. Moreover, people should not be allowed to be close to reservoirs; they should go to the allocated play areas. Well labeled and conspicuous posters can be placed in strategic areas to create awareness that litter should not be dumped everywhere. Retailers trading within the areas should be cautioned not to litter their products all over. They can also be used by the government to remind the visitors to keep litter in the litter bins. Conclusion Both Marina Bay Garden and the Barrage serve as significant tourist attraction centers to the Singapore government. The state should, therefore, focus on maintaining them not only to earn revenue but also to provide a world-class beauty of Singapore. The country is subtle hindering it from participating in other sectors such as agriculture, mining and large industrial activities. The government has therefore concentrated on the tourism industry which is the single profitable section for Singapore. It has indeed invested to provide human-made international tourist attraction sites. References Flannery, J. A., Smith, K. M. (2015). Gardens by the Bay. In Eco-Landscape Design (pp. 88103). Springer International Publishing. Hakam, A. N., Wee, C. H., Yang, C. (2015). Lifestyle segmentation of the international tourists: The case of Singapore. In Proceedings of the 1988 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference (pp. 142-146). Springer International Publishing. Irvine, K., Chua, L., Eikass, H. S. (2014). The Four National Taps of Singapore: A holistic Approach to water resources management from drainage to drinking water. Journal of water management modeling, 1-11. Kaplan, M. (2016). Nation and Conservation: Postcolonial Water Narratives in Singapore Rituals. Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 89(2), 125-138. Koh, H. S., Lim, Y. B. (2015). Floating Performance Stage at the Marina Bay, Singapore. In Large Floating Structures (pp. 37-59). Springer Singapore. Perlinger, J. A., Paterson, K. G., Mayer, A. S., Griffis, V. W., Holles, K. L. (2013, October). Assessment of a sustainability program in graduate Civil and Environmental Engineering Education. In 2013 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) (pp. 215-219). IEEE. Tiatco, A. P. (2015). Lift: Love is Flower the dir. By Jeff Chen (review). Asian Theatre Journal, 32(1), 319-323. Yap, E. X. (2013). The transnational assembling of Marina Bay, Singapore. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 34(3), 390-406.